Outcomes and consequences

Socialisation

Equality of opportunity

The principle that all people, irrespective for instance of ethnicity, gender, disability or social class, should have equal access to opportunities - including educational opportunities. Equality of opportunity is an ideal and a commitment, but it has been undermined by the spread of poverty and by some education policies in England and Wales in recent years.

Entitlement

The principle that all citizens have a right to certain forms of provision, for instance, of parents and pupils to good schools and high quality teaching, and of teachers to adequate resources and sound education policies.

Fulfilment of potential

The aspiration that all individuals will be able to fulfil themselves and develop in all the ways which they can during their lives. This aspiration is compromised if opportunities are unequal or if entitlements are not protected.

Under-achievement

The extent to which potential is unfulfilled, and a major problem in the UK . However, it is a complex problem and, among other things, requires attention to structural issues concerning the culture, values and socio-economic conditions in some communities and to the resources available to some schools.

Low expectations

An explanation for under-achievement which is often offered by governments and which primarily locates the problem with teachers and parents, but less with governments.

Vocational development

Educational provision which is specifically designed to support pupils in future work and employment.

Social development

Educational provision which is specifically designed to support the social adjustment and self-confidence of pupils.

Special Educational Needs (SEN)

Particular physical, emotional or intellectual needs which a child has been assessed as having. Children for whom a 'statement' of needs has been issued are entitled to have their needs met by their LEA subject to the 'efficient use of resources'.

Interests

The concerns and priorities which individuals or groups may have in defence or promotion of a structural position which they occupy in society. This may be a useful concept in analysing contributions to educational controversies and debates.

Power

The capacity which an individual or group has to get or make others do what they wish. Often, as in education, there are 'power struggles' in which many people and groups have some power and outcomes are resolved by a process of shifting alliances as events unfold. However, since the Education Reform Act, the Secretary of State for Education has had an unprecedented number of powers.

Ideology

A set of ideas and beliefs which is often held by social groups who share particular interests. Seen therefore as a source on bias and irrationality. In respect of primary education, the late 1980s and early 1990s saw a constant stream of accusations of ideological bias by government ministers of teachers and by teachers of government ministers.

Social status

The ascribed esteem in which an individual or social position is held. This can be important to children in their peer group and it is important to teachers in society more generally. Unfortunately their social status has been somewhat undermined by criticisms in recent years.

Socialisation

The process by which individuals are inducted into the taken-for-granted rules, values and cultural understandings of a group or social organisation. This is particularly relevant to teachers and pupils entering schools and taking on new roles. However, such individuals should not be seen as being entirely passive.

Perspectives

The cluster of subjective opinions and meanings with which an individual or group make sense of an experience, of something or of somebody. This is important for all those involved in a school, and, in particular for the partnership of parents, pupils and teachers. If perspectives on partnership are widely different, then it will not work.

Social differentiation

A generic term for the process, in education, by which teachers identify and separate groups of pupils for particular purposes. For instance, to study particular subjects or for matching ability levels.

Polarisation

A generic term for the process in education by which children, operating through peer culture, tend to reinforce social differentiation and amplify its consequences through their friendships and social relationships.

Teacher expectations

The beliefs which a teacher holds about the possible performance of his or her pupils. Pupil attainment is thought to be influenced by these.

Coping strategies

The patterned ways in which teachers and pupils act in classrooms and schools to protect their personal interests and perspectives.

Social class

A concept used to denote the types and range of social, cultural and economic resource and the distribution of political power amongst social groups in societies. This is of relevance to education in the UK in the 1990s because inequalities have been growing and educational underachievement is adversely affecting working class children, particularly in inner cities.

Gender

A concept used to denote the social expectations which are associated with males and females in a society. This is of relevance to primary education in the UK for many reasons. For instance, women teachers, though more numerous, seem to be disadvantaged in reaching senior positions in schools. However, girls are now outperforming boys in school attainment in many subjects, raising different sorts of gender issues.

Ethnicity

A concept used to denote the cultural and racial reference group or groups with which an individual is identified, but which in law, has nothing to do with citizenship. This is of relevance to education in the UK because there is evidence of variation in the attainment of pupils from different ethnic groups.

Social class

Disability

A concept used, somewhat uncomfortably, to highlight the needs of people who may be physically or mentally disabled and for whom access to their educational entitlements may be restricted, despite possible statements of special educational need. This is of importance to education because of the responsibilities which remain to support disabled people in fulfilling their full potential.